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Violent or forced sex can increase the risk of transmitting HIV. In forced vaginal or anal penetration, abrasions and cuts commonly occur, thus facilitating the entry of the virus into the bloodstream.
- Adolescent girls are particularly susceptible to HIV infection because their vaginal mucous membrane has not yet acquired the cellular density providing an effective barrier that develops in the later teenage years.
- Those who suffer anal rape are also considerably more susceptible to HIV since anal tissues can be easily damaged, allowing the virus an easier entry into the body.
Being a victim of sexual violence and being susceptible to HIV share a number of risk behaviours.
- Forced sex in childhood or adolescence increases the likelihood of engaging in unprotected sex, having multiple partners, participating in sex work, and substance abuse.
- People who experience forced sex in intimate relationships often find it difficult to negotiate condom use.
- Sexual coercion among adolescents and adults is associated with low self-esteem and depression --- factors that are associated with many of the risk behaviours for HIV infection.
Being infected with HIV or having an HIV-positive family member can also increase the risk of suffering sexual violence, particularly for women.
- Because of the stigma attached to HIV and AIDS in many countries, an infected woman may be evicted from her home.
- AIDS-related illness or death in a poor household may make the economic situation desperate. Women may be forced into sex work and consequently be at increased risk for both HIV/AIDS and sexual violence.
Children orphaned by AIDS, impoverished and with no one to care for them, may be forced to live on the streets, at considerable risk of sexual abuse.
2009 - 2008
- Mobilizing Religious Communities to Respond to Gender-based Violence and HIV: A Training Manual. Herstad, B. Futures Group, Health Policy Initiative, Task Order 1, 2009
- UNAIDS Action Framework: Addressing Women, Girls, Gender Equality and HIV. UNAIDS, 2009
- A Call to Act: Engaging Religious Leaders and Communities in Addressing Gender-based Violence and HIV. Herstad, B. 2009
- Understanding men’s health and use of violence: Interface of rape and HIV in South Africa. Jewkes, R., Sikweyiya, Y., Morrell, R & Dunkle, K. 2009
- HIV Vulnerabilities of Migrant Women: from Asia to the Arab states. Shifting from silence, stigma and shame to safe mobility with dignity, equity and justice. UN Development Programme. 2009
- A Manual for Integrating the Programmes and Services of HIV and Violence Against Women, Dinys Luciano. Ferdinand, Development Connections, with support from UNIFEM. 2009, and Spanish.
- Young People’s Voices on Child Trafficking: Experiences from South Eastern Europe. Dottridge, M. 2008: This publication intends to contribute to existing research on child trafficking by adding the perspectives of affected children and young people. [Source: Child Trafficking Gateway 129 – Trafficking] Full report.
- Las múltiples caras de las intersecciones entre el VIH y la violencia contra las mujeres. Editors: Aracely Barahona-Strittmatter and Dinys Luciano. Development Connections, UNIFEM, Pan American Health Organization, Inter-American Commission of Women and the Latin American and Caribbean Women’s Health Network. Development Connections (DVCN), 2008 - pdf formats: In Spanish / English
- Sexual Violence and HIV: A Technical Assistance Guide for Victim Service Providers, National Sexual Violence Resource Center , 2008
- Triple Jeopardy: Female Adolescence, Sexual Violence, and HIV/AIDS. International Women's Health Coalition. 2008
- Sexual Violence and HIV: Factsheet (pdf format, 483 kb)
- Triple Jeopardy: Female Adolescence, Sexual Violence, and HIV/AIDS, International Women's Health Coalition, 2008
- Resource collection of free materials on HIV/AIDS and women
- Sexual Violence and HIV: A Technical Assistance Guide for Victim Service Providers by the National Sexual Violence Resource Center, 2008
- Women, HIV/AIDS & Human Rights: An Annotated Syllabus, Prepared by the International Reproductive & Sexual Health Law Programme, Faculty of Law, University of Toronto, Canada. Updated April 2008
2007 - 2000
- Violence Against Women and HIV, Eldis key issues guide
- Exploring the intersections between HIV and Violence Against Women in Latin America and the Caribbean, Dinys Luciano, Development Connections, 2007. This document is in Spanish. [Source: Development Connections]
- Stop Violence Against Women. Fight AIDS, What’s Real, Issue #2. The Global Coalition on Women and AIDS
- Gordon P & Crehan K Dying of Sadness: gender, sexual violence and the HIV epidemic. HIV and Development Programme, UNDP
- Evaluation of Stepping Stones: A Gender Transformative HIV Prevention Intervention, Jewkes, R, Hduna, M., Levin, J, Jama, N, Dunkle, K, Wood, K, Koss, M, Puren, A, Duvvury, N. Medical Research Council, 2007
- "Show Us the Money: Is Violence Against Women on the HIV and AIDS Funding Agenda?", Fried, T.S., Women Won't Wait, Action Aid Women Won't Wait Campaign, 2007
- Change, choice and power: young women, livelihoods and HIV prevention, Urdang, S., United Nations Population Fund, 2007
- Women living with HIV, Royal Tropical Institute, 2006
- Strengthening Resistance: Confronting Violence Against Women and HIV/AIDS, Rothschild, C., Reilly M A & Nordstrom, S A., Center for Womens Global Leadership, 2006
- Change, Choice and Power: Young Women, Livelihoods and HIV Prevention, IPPF, UNFPA, Young Positives, 2007
- Linking migration, HIV/AIDS and urban food security in southern and eastern Africa, Crush, J., Frayne, B. et al, Southern African Mobility Project (SAMP) 2006
- Crossings: deadly links between mobility and HIV, Southern African Mobility Project (SAMP), 2006
- Culture, HIV and AIDS: an annotated bibliography, Nguyen, V; Klot, J; Phillips, A; Pirkle, C, UNESCO, 2006
- Joining Hands: Integrating Gender and HIV/AIDS, ACCORD, 2006
- Sexual and Reproductive Health of HIV Positive Women and Adolescent Girls: A Dialogue on Rights, Policies and Services, EngenderHealth, Harvard University, ICW, Ipas, UNFPA, 2006
- Conducting a Participatory Situation Analysis of Orphan and Vulnerable Children Affected by HIV/AIDS: Guidelines and Tools, 2006
- Violence against Women and AIDS: Setting the research agenda, Meeting
Report Geneva, 23-25 October 2005, Gender and Women's Health, World Health Organisation, 2005
- Information Brief on Sexual Violence in Conflict and HIV/AIDS,
WHO, Department of Gender Women and Health, 2004
- Information Brief on Intimate Partner Violence and HIV/AIDS,
WHO, Department of Gender Women and Health, 2004
- The Right to Survive: Sexual Violence, Women and HIV/AIDS,
Nduwimana, F. /Rights & Democracy,2004
- How does violence against women increase female vulnerability to HIV? UNAIDS, 2004
- Knapp, Carolyn. "HIV and partner violence: What are the implications for voluntary counseling and testing." 2001. The Horizons Report Spring. Washington, DC: Population Council.
- Dying of Sadness: Gender, Sexual Violence and the HIV Epidemic,
Gordon, P.; Crehan, K. / Poverty Elimination Programme, UNDP, 2000
- Agenda for Accelerated Country Action for Women, Girls, Gender Equality and HIV. UNAIDS, 2010
- Respect, Protect and Fulfill: Legislating for Women’s Rights in the Context of HIV/AIDS, Volume 1: Sexual and Domestic Violence. Canadian HIV/AIDS Legal Network, 2009
- Sexual Violence and HIV: Factsheet (pdf format, 483 kb)
- The Right to Survive: Sexual Violence, Women and HIV/AIDS Françoise Nduwimana. International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development, December 2004.
- Young Men and HIV Prevention Horizons Program, Population Council, December 2004.
- Women, HIV/AIDS, and Human Rights Amnesty International, November 2004.
- Intimate Partner Violence and HIV/AIDS WHO Information Bulletin Series, 2004. [PDF, 203K]
- Violence against Female Sex Workers in Karnataka State, South India: Impact on Health, and Reductions in Violence Following an Intervention Program. Beattie T.S, Bhattacharjee P, Ramesh B.M, Gurani V, Anthony J, Isac S, Mohan H.L, Ramakrishnan A, Wheeler T, Bradley J.E, Blanchard J.F, Moses S. BMC Public Health; 10(1): 476, 2010
- Child Sexual Abuse and Links to HIV and Orphanhood in Urban Zimbabwe. Birdthistle I.J, Floyd S, Mwanasa S, Nyagadza A, Gwiza E, Glynn J.R. J Epidemiol Community Health; ePub, 2010
- Intimate Partner Violence, Relationship Power Inequity, and Incidence of HIV Infection in Young Women in South Africa: A Cohort Study. Jewkes R.K, Dunkle K, Nduna M, Shai N. The Lancet, Early Online Publication, 16 June 2010
- Compulsory Testing of Alleged Sexual Offenders – Implications for Human Rights and Access To Treatment. Madiba T.E & Vawda Y.A. South African Journal of Bioethics and Law, 3(1); 2010
- Barriers to Post Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) Completion after Rape: a South African Qualitative Study. Abrahams N, Jewkes R. Cult Health Sex, ePub ahead of print, 2010
2009 - 2002
- HIV vulnerabilities of sex-trafficked Indian women and girls. Gupta J, Raj A, Decker MR, Reed E, Silverman JG. Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2009 ePub
- Tackling HIV and gender-based violence in South Africa: how has PEPFAR responded and what are the implications for implementing organizations? Elena Ghanotakis, Susannah Mayhew, and Charlotte Watts, Health Policy and Planning Advance Access published online on June 8, 2009
- Sexual assault, domestic violence and HIV: Promoting women's rights through legislation. Pearshouse R. HIV AIDS Policy Law Rev; 13(2-3): 63-4. 2008
- The Intersection of HIV and Intimate Partner Violence: Considerations, Concerns, and Policy Implications, M. L. Baty, Fam Violence Prev Health Pract 2008
- Reducing HIV and Partner Violence Risk Among Women with Criminal Justice System Involvement: A Randomized Controlled Trial of Two Motivational Interviewing-based Interventions. Weir BW, O'Brien K, Bard RS, et al AIDS Behav. 2008
- HIV risks, substance abuse, and intimate partner violence among Hispanic women and their intimate partners. González-Guarda RM, Peragallo N, Urrutia MT,et al J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. Jul-Aug;19(4):252-66. 2008
- The mediating role of partner communication skills on HIV/STD-associated risk behaviors in young African American females with a history of sexual violence. Sales JM, Salazar LF, Wingood GM, et al Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. May;162(5):432-8. 2008
- Accounting for institutional change in health economic evaluation: A program to tackle HIV/AIDS and gender violence in Southern Africa. Jan, S., P. Pronyk, et al. Social Science & Medicine 66(4): 922-932. 2008
- Associations Between Recent Gender-Based Violence and Pregnancy, Sexually Transmitted Infections, Condom Use Practices, and Negotiation of Sexual Practices Among HIV-Positive Women, Delia L Lang, PhD, MPH; Laura F Salazar, PhD; Gina M Wingood, ScD, MPH; Ralph J DiClemente, PhD; Isis Mikhail, MD, DrPHD, Epidemiology and Social Science, JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes. 46(2):216-221, October 1, 2007
- Intimate Partner Violence and HIV Risks: A Longitudinal Study of Men on Methadone. Gilbert L, El-Bassel N, Wu E, Chang M. J Urban Health. Sep;84(5):667-8 2007
- Investigating the Intersection between HIV and Sexual and Domestic Violence in Central America, Farah Nageer, Family Violence Prevention Fund, September 2007
- Comprehensive response to rape needed in conflict settings, Jewkes R. Volume 369 Number 9580 June 30 - July 6, 2007
- Prevalence of HIV infection in conflict-affected and displaced people in seven sub-Saharan African countries: a systematic review, Spiegel, P., A. Bennedsen R, et al. The Lancet 369: 2187-2195, 2007
- Substance use during sexual and physical assault in HIV-infected persons. Chuang CH, Liebschutz JM, Cheng DM, Raj A, Samet JH. Violence Vict; 22(2): 216-25. 2007
- The Association Between History of Violence and HIV Risk: A Cross-Sectional Study of HIV-Negative Incarcerated Women in Connecticut, Anita Ravi, Kim M. Blankenship and Frederick L. Altice, Women's Health Issues, In Press, Available online 13 June 2007
- Editorial: Effective HIV prevention requires gender-transformative work with men. Dunkle K.L. & Jewkes, R. Sexually Transmitted Infections;83:173-174, 2007
- Violence and HIV-related risk among young men who have sex with men Koblin BA, Torian L, Xu G, Guilin V, Makki H, Mackellar D, Valleroy L. AIDS Care. 2006 Nov;18(8):961-7.
- The association of partner abuse with risky sexual behaviors among women and men with HIV/AIDS Bogart LM, Collins RL, Cunningham W, Beckman R, Golinelli D, Eisenman D, Bird CE. AIDS Behavior. 2005 Sep;9(3)325-33.
- Violence Against Women and HIV/AIDS: Critical Intersections - Violence against sex workers and HIV prevention, WHO Information Bulletin Series, Number 3, 2005
- Martin & Curtis, Gender-based violence and HIV/AIDS: recognising links and acting on evidence,
Lancet, Volume 363 Issue 9419, 2004. Quick registration required for access.
- Dunkle, Jewkes et al, Gender-based violence, relationship power, and risk of HIV infection in women attending antenatal clinics in South Africa,
Lancet Volume 363 Issue 9419, 2002. Quick registration required for access.
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SVRI
Gender and Health Research Unit
Medical Research Council, South Africa
Private Bag x385, 0001 Pretoria, South Africa
1 Soutpansberg Road, Pretoria
Tel: +27 12 339-8527
Fax: +27 12 339-8582
E-mail: svri@mrc.ac.za
Last updated:
25 August, 2010
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